Blunt popliteal artery injury with complete lower limb ischemia: is routine use of temporary intraluminal arterial shunt justified?☆

Article Outline

• Abstract
• Patients and methods
• Results
• Discussion
• References
• Copyright

Abstract 

Objective

Complete lower limb ischemia as a result of blunt popliteal artery injury is associated with the highest morbidity and amputation rates among all of the peripheral vascular injuries. The purpose of this study was to determine the possible benefits of routine use of a temporary intraluminal arterial shunt in patients with complete limb ischemia from blunt popliteal trauma.

Patients and methods

Over 3 years seven blunt popliteal artery injuries with complete lower limb ischemia were managed with insertion of a shunt at the initial phase of the operation. Data from these procedures was analyzed and compared with retrospectively collected data for 10 injuries with complete ischemia treated without shunts during the preceding 5 years.

Results

Mean injury severity score and mangled extremity severity score were 9.3 ± 3.49 and 5.7 ± 0.95, respectively, in the shunt group, and 9.9 ± 3.57 and 5.9 ± 0.56, respectively in the non-shunt group. Mean ischemic time was 244.3, 24.3, and 268.6 minutes, respectively, for preoperative, intraoperative, and total ischemic time in the shunt group, and 273, 56.5, and 329.5 minutes in the non-shunt group. The difference was significant for intraoperative (P < .001) and total (P < .05) ischemic time. In the entire group, 92.8% of patients with total ischemic time greater than 4 hours underwent fasciotomy, 100% required repeat operation, and 57.1% had complications and required fasciotomy wound debridement. All patients (100%) with ischemic time greater than 6 hours required amputation, compared with no patients with ischemic time less than 5 hours. One patient in the shunt group (14.3%) experienced one fasciotomy wound complication (11.1%), compared with seven patients in the non-shunt group (70%) had 8 complications (88.9%) (P < .05). Mean number of repeat operations was 0.8 ± 1.06 in the shunt group, and 1.9 ± 0.73 in the non-shunt group (P < .05). One patient in the shunt group (14.3%) required fasciotomy wound debridement, compared with seven patients in the non-shunt group (70%; P < .05). Mean hospital stay was 14.4 and 23 days, respectively, in the shunt and non-shunt groups (P < .05). Four limbs in the non-shunt group (40%) required amputation, compared with 100% limb salvage in the shunt group.

Conclusion

Temporary arterial shunting after blunt lower limb trauma significantly reduces total ischemic time, complications, repeat operations, amputation, and hospitalization. I recommend routine use of shunts in blunt popliteal artery injuries with complete lower limb ischemia.

In civilian practice, popliteal artery injury is associated with high morbidity and remains among the most challenging of extremity vascular injuries.1, 2, 3 Although it composes 5% to 19% of all arterial injuries,4, 5 popliteal artery injury accounts for 65% of amputations performed because of vascular trauma.3, 6 The reduction in amputation rate reported by many authors is mainly related to penetrating trauma,6, 7, 8, 9 and most civilian series of blunt injuries still report a substantial amputation rate.10, 11, 12

In blunt trauma, the high amount of energy that is typically absorbed causes severe damage to skeletal structures and soft tissues,13 and frequently produces almost complete distal ischemia, because the crushing injury and soft tissue swelling obliterate the frail arterial collateral network around the knee.14 In addition, the traction injury that causes the popliteal lesion usually results in severe spasm of the collateral circulation and distal arteries.10 This clinical subgroup is associated with the highest morbidity among all blunt popliteal artery injuries, with an amputation rate as high as 60%.12

Often the effect of ischemia produced by the initial trauma is further worsened by delayed revascularization, which results in exceeding the allowable warm ischemic time for skeletal muscles. Reasons for this delay include transference of patients from one hospital to another, and delay in diagnosis, preoperative resuscitation and evaluation, stabilization of extremely unstable associated fracture, repair of associated venous injury, and debridement of damaged soft tissue.15 Although a substantial portion of this delay is beyond our control, rapid revascularization should remain the main goal in treating blunt trauma, to prevent irreversible ischemic damage to soft tissues.

Temporary arterial shunting has been suggested to expedite revascularization in patients with traumatic arterial injuries, and was first reported in 1971 by Eger et al.16 Since then, the use of shunting has been repeatedly reported, and several authors have supported the utility of this rational approach in selected patients with civilian complex upper and lower limb vascular injuries.15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 Others have used shunts during extremity reimplantation,22 and more recently as a component of damage control management in patients with severe, multisystem trauma.23, 24

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Patients and methods 

Between January 1995 and August 2003, 39 patients with 39 popliteal artery injuries were admitted to our hospital. The mechanism of injury was penetrating in eight patients and blunt trauma in 31 patients. Of the 31 patients with blunt trauma, 21 had complete lower limb ischemia, defined as absence of pulses and Doppler signals distal to the injury. The presence of complete ischemia was initially determined in the emergency department and confirmed in the operating room with hand-held Doppler scanning immediately before surgical exposure, when patient systolic blood pressure was at least 100 mm Hg.

Eight consecutive patients of the 21 patients were admitted since August 2000, and management included insertion of a temporary intraluminal arterial shunt at an early stage of the operation. The remaining 13 patients were managed without a shunt, during the preceding 5 years. The same surgical team, using the same treatment protocol, treated all 21 patients. Seven of the eight patients (shunt group) and 10 of the 13 patients (non-shunt group) were selected for inclusion in the study. In these patients preoperative ischemic time was 6 hours or less, and they had severe lower limb ischemia (ischemic pain, sensory or motor dysfunction, profound temperature difference). The remaining four patients, one with and three without a shunt, were excluded because preoperative ischemic time was greater than 6 hours.

Data for the shunt group were collected prospectively and compared with retrospectively collected data for the non-shunt group. Data for this group were obtained from hospital admission records; operative reports from surgeons, anesthesiologists, and nurses; and attending surgeons' records.

Variables known to have an effect on the outcome were assessed for every patient, and included injury severity score, mangled extremity severity score, presence of skeletal injury, and extent of soft tissue injury. Interval variables included preoperative, intraoperative, and total ischemic times. Outcome variables included early complication rate, number and nature of repeat operations, length of hospital stay, and amputation rate.

Preoperative ischemic time was defined as the time from injury to induction of anesthesia. Intraoperative ischemic time was defined as the time from induction of anesthesia to reestablishment of arterial flow, defined as the presence of pulse in the arterial segment immediately distal to the shunt (shunt group) or the definitive arterial repair (non-shunt group). Total ischemic time was the sum of the preoperative and intraoperative times.

The initial shunt insertion surgical procedure was essentially the same in the seven patients. The injured artery was identified, and severed ends were located, freed of 2 to 3 cm of surrounding tissue, and controlled with vascular clamps. This was followed by debridement of the damaged vessel ends, application of rubber vessel loops within a rubber catheter around the proximal and distal arterial segments, balloon catheter thrombectomy, and infusion of heparinized saline solution (5000 U/L) in both the proximal and distal ends. A polyvinylchloride endotracheal suction catheter of suitable size was used as the temporary shunt. The shunt was inserted proximally, and the vessel loop was drawn tight around the catheter to prevent leakage. Then the catheter was flushed to remove air and intraluminal debris by removal of the proximal vascular clamp. The distal end was then inserted and controlled in the same way. The vein was also shunted, if injured, in a similar manner, but starting with the distal end first. Pulsation in the arterial segment distal to the shunt ensured adequate functioning of the shunt. Monitoring of the shunt during the remainder of the procedure was achieved by observing the distal pulses or by Doppler examination of the foot, and, if necessary, through direct examination of the shunt. Fasciotomy, debridement of devitalized tissues, fixation of fractures, harvesting of saphenous vein graft, and repair of venous injury were perfomed while the shunt was in place. The shunt was then removed from the distal arterial end, to allow plication of the venous graft over it before reinsertion to perform the anastomosis while the shunt was still in place.

A two-incision, four-compartment fasciotomy was performed in patients with clinical evidence of increased compartmental pressure and in those with severe sensory and motor deficit or severe soft tissue injury in the leg in the absence of increased compartment tenseness. Hypertonic mannitol solution was infused perioperatively in all patients, starting with a bolus of 25 g before revascularization, usually with induction of anesthesia, followed by continuous infusion of 5 to 10 g/hr during the remainder of the surgical procedure.

Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS version 11.5 for Windows. Comparisons of clinical characteristics, complication rate, and repeat operations were calculated with the χ²; Fisher exact test results were considered when comparative data were too small. The Student t test was used to compare means, and the Pearson correlation to test for correlations between variables. P < .05 was considered statistically significant.

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Results 

All patients included in the study were men, with mean age of 30.1 years (range, 17-50 years) in the shunt group and 28.3 years (range, 16-55 years) in the non-shunt group. Blunt trauma in all patients was the result of motor vehicle accidents. In both groups as a whole, 88% of arterial injuries were associated with both skeletal and severe soft tissue injuries. There was no statistical difference between the two groups with regard to severity of trauma, as indicated by calculated injury severity score and mangled extremity severity score, number of patients with fractures around the knee, and number of patients with severe soft tissue injury (Table I). Throughout the study period no differences were identified with regard to the method of patient transport to the hospital, or pre-hospital or in-hospital delay.

Table I. Clinical characteristics of patients

ISS, Injury severity score; MESS, mangled extremity severity score.

While there was no statistical difference in preoperative ischemic time between the two groups, the difference was significant for intraoperative (P < .001) and total (P < .05) ischemic times (Table II). Revascularization was established within the first 30 minutes of operation in the shunt group, and within the first 80 minutes in the non-shunt group; this included two patients in whom skeletal stabilization by external fixators preceded vascular repair. Excluding these two patients, revascularization was established within 55 minutes, with mean intraoperative ischemic time of 48.8 minutes (range, 30-55 minutes), nearly double the mean time (24.3 minutes) in the shunt group. Giving priority to treatment of the arterial injuries over any other associated injury did not alter the significant difference (P < .001) in favor of the shunt group.

Table II. Ischemic times in two groups

The type of vascular injuries and their repairs are presented in Table III. Shunts were used in the two patients with venous injuries in the shunt group, because rapid repair with lateral venorraphy was not feasible. All venous shunts were inserted after the arterial shunts. While all venous injuries were repaired before definitive arterial repair in the shunt group, repair was performed after completion of the arterial repairs in all patients in the non-shunt group.

Table III. Type of vascular injuries and surgical repairs in two groups

All skeletal injuries in the shunt group were stabilized with internal fixation after shunt insertion. In the non-shunt group, seven skeletal injuries (77.8%) were managed with internal fixation after definitive vascular repair, and two (22.2%) with external fixation before revascularization, because of extremely unstable fractures.

In the study group as a whole, limb outcome was related to duration of total ischemia (Table IV). While none of the patients with total ischemic time of 4 hours or less required fasciotomy or repeat operation, or had complications related to the ischemic leg, 92.8% of patients with total ischemic time greater than 4 hours underwent fasciotomy, 100% required repeat operation, 57.1% developed complications, and 57.1% underwent fasciotomy wound debridement. All patients with ischemic time greater than 6 hours required amputation, compared with none of those with ischemic time less than 5 hours.

Table IV. Limb outcome in relation to total ischemic time intervals in study group as a whole

Mean total ischemic time was substantially longer in patients with fasciotomy, complications, repeat operations, fasciotomy wound debridement, and amputation (Table V). Insertion of a shunt succeeded in maintaining total ischemic time within the same preoperative ischemic interval in all patients (Table VI), whereas all but two patients in the non-shunt group had total ischemic time within the time interval next to the preoperative interval.

Table V. Mean total ischemic time in patients within different clinical outcome groups in study group as a whole

Table VI. Number of patients within different total ischemic intervals in relation to preoperative ischemic interval in both groups

Fasciotomy was clinically indicated in four patients in the shunt group (57.1%), and was performed immediately after insertion of the arterial (and venous) shunts. Nine patients in the non-shunt group (90%) required fasciotomy; eight fasciotomy procedures were performed after definitive vascular repair, and one procedure was delayed. Although we infused hypertonic mannitol solution in all patients, the fasciotomy rate was 76.5% in the study group as a whole, and most fasciotomy procedures were performed in the non-shunt group.

Five patients in the shunt group (71.4%) and six patients in the non-shunt group (60%) regained pulses in at least one of the pedal vessels by the end of the surgical procedure. The remaining two patients in the shunt group (28.6%) and four patients in the non-shunt group (40%) had Doppler signals. In those patients completion angiography was performed via direct arterial puncture proximal to the arterial repair, to evaluate the repair and the distal runoff vessels to the foot; all angiograms revealed adequate repair and patent runoff arteries. Four additional patients (two in each group) regained pulses during the first postoperative 24 hours; however, all four patients in the non-shunt group who did not regain pulses by the end of the surgical procedure required amputation.

There were no technical complications from shunt insertion, and no shunt-related complications were recorded, such as shunt thrombosis, shunt dislodgement, or distal embolization. Systemic heparin was not used in any of the 17 patients; however, it was our practice to flush the distal and proximal arterial segments with heparinized saline solution (5000 U/L) after balloon catheter thrombectomy.

The number and types of complications related to the injured limbs are shown in Table VII. The number of patients with complications, total number of complications, and complications related to fasciotomy wounds (partial muscle necrosis, infection) were significantly (P < .05) lower in the shunt group.

Table VII. Complications related to injured limbs in both groups

In the early postoperative period, 14 patients underwent 25 repeat operations in the study group as a whole. The number and nature of repeat operations recorded in the two groups are presented in Table VIII. The commonest procedure was fasciotomy wound closure (66.7%) in the shunt group, and fasciotomy wound debridement (36.8%) in the non-shunt group. The mean number of repeat operations and the number of patients who underwent fasciotomy wound debridement were significantly higher (P < .05) in the non-shunt group.

Table VIII. Repeat operations recorded in two groups

*Values represent mean ± SD.

Mean hospital stay was significantly shorter (P < .05) in the shunt group compared with the non-shunt group: 14.4 days (range, 10-23 days) versus 23 days (range, 14-40 days). Hospital stay was positively correlated to number of repeat operations (r = 0.864; P = .0001) and complications (r = 0.778; P = .0001) in the study group as a whole.

While four limbs in the non-shunt group (40%) required amputation, limb salvage in the shunt group was 100%, and all salvaged limbs in both groups had palpable pedal pulses at hospital discharge. Two amputated limbs had pedal pulses at the time of amputation. Amputation of these limbs was performed because of uncontrolled severe infection in leg muscles with necrosis, which was attributed solely to ischemia, because both patients had supracondylar fractures of the femur, with no significant direct trauma to the leg. The remaining two amputations were necessary because of persistent distal ischemia despite patent arterial repair (one repaired with venous grafting, and one with direct repair) confirmed at angiography; this was attributed to distal small vessel thrombosis.

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Discussion 

Complete lower limb ischemia from blunt popliteal artery injury is associated with the highest morbidity and amputation rate among all popliteal artery injuries.

In the presence of complete ischemia, time is critical to limb outcome. While the best outcome is expected if revascularization is achieved within 4 hours after trauma, limb salvage is unlikely if ischemic time exceeds 6 hours. The incidence of fasciotomy, complications (especially those related to fasciotomy wounds), repeat operations, and limb loss is increased with longer ischemic time. Many reports25, 26, 27, 28, 29 have failed to show any correlation between ischemic time and outcome; however, this can be explained in that most of these studies included a relatively heterogenous group of patients with regard to mode of trauma, presence of complete ischemia, level of arterial injury, extent of soft tissue damage, and degree of general shock. Inasmuch as almost all of these independent variables were evenly distributed among our patients, examining the effect of ischemic time yielded more meaningful information.

The use of shunts in patients with complete ischemia after blunt popliteal artery injury can improve the overall outcome by reducing intraoperative ischemic time and hence shorten total ischemic time. The time that can be saved with shunting is the time needed to harvest the saphenous vein, fashion the graft, construct two anastomoses, repair venous injury, and stabilize skeletal fracture before definitive arterial repair, either because of extremely unstable fracture or because we believe that rapid external fixation by an experienced orthopedist will not take much time. These procedures prolonged the intraoperative ischemic time, and consequently the total ischemic time, in the non-shunt group. Shunting is more effective in minimizing the intraoperative ischemic time than if rapid definitive arterial repair is performed as the initial step and none of the nonarterial injuries take priority.

Most patients with complete ischemia after blunt trauma have avulsion or crushing of a long vessel segment, and are less likely to undergo arterial repair with direct anastomosis. Most reports of blunt popliteal injuries report an incidence of graft repair between 67% and 92%.12, 15, 19, 30, 31 This was consistent with the incidence of 80% found in the non-shunt group. However, this incidence increases if arterial repair follows skeletal fixation, probably because rigid initial skeletal fixation holds the bone at the correct length and makes the choice of repair type more precise, depending on real final length.

The shortened total ischemic time in the shunt group resulted in lower incidence of repeat operations and shorter hospital stay, because of lower incidence of fasciotomy and fasciotomy wound complications, namely, muscle necrosis and infection, which are well-known sequelae of prolonged ischemia on skeletal muscles. Others have similarly noted the relation between fasciotomy rate, period of hospitalization, and ischemic time.17, 32

Although fasciotomy was advocated by several authors as a necessary adjunct to improve the outcome after popliteal trauma,10 in a completely ischemic limb nothing is more important than rapid restoration of the circulation. There is no doubt that fasciotomy improves muscle blood flow, and it should be coupled, if indicated, with expeditious revascularization. Liberal fasciotomy alone (90%) failed to improve the outcome in the non-shunt group.

Shortened total ischemic time resulted in 100% limb salvage in the shunt group, and all amputations were performed in the non-shunt group. The reasons for amputation included extensive muscle necrosis, uncontrolled infection, or failure to achieve adequate distal perfusion despite patent arterial repair, because of distal small vessel thrombosis; all are known sequelae of prolonged ischemic time.

Although early systemic administration of heparin has been suggested to protect against small vessel thrombosis and to improve limb salvage rate, none of our patients received systemic heparin, and the overall limb salvage rate was 76.5%. Despite administration of systemic heparin to their patients, Wagner et al2 reported a limb salvage rate of 85% after blunt popliteal trauma, which is close to the salvage rate of 84% reported by Hafez et al,31 although they did not use systemic heparin. The lower incidence of limb salvage in the present study is related to the clinical characteristics of our patients, as all had complete ischemia.

This study has limitations and weaknesses, mostly due to its retrospective nature with historical control subjects. Although the two groups were similar with regard to all baseline variables that could influence outcome, the non-shunt group was retrospectively selected and evaluated, data presented were the result of initial and later treatments by the same surgical team, and it is possible that unrecognized factors differed between the two groups, which could contribute to differences in outcome. Despite these limitations, we believe the study contains some interesting observations.

In summary, the use of a temporary shunt in patients with complete lower limb ischemia from blunt popliteal artery injury significantly reduces ischemic time and imposes a logical operative approach that dispels anxiety about time, with better management resulting in improvement of overall early outcome. It reduces the incidence of complications, repeat operations, amputation rate, and period of hospitalization. For these reasons it seems reasonable to recommend routine use of shunts in patients with complete lower limb ischemia from blunt popliteal artery trauma.

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